Mastering English - A Comprehensive Grammar and Writing Guide for Classes 9–12

 

Mastering English

A Comprehensive Grammar and Writing Guide for Classes 9–12

 

Table of Content

 

Chapter 1

A. Word-Level Grammar and Vocabulary

1. Antonyms, synonyms, homonyms, homophones, and homographs
2. Word formation (prefixes, suffixes, compound words)
3. Articles and determiners (a, an, the, some, any, few, many, etc.)
4. Subjective, objective, and possessive pronouns
5. Indefinite pronouns
6. Modal auxiliaries
7. Auxiliaries
8. Verb phrases, noun phrases, and prepositional phrases

CHAPTER 1

A. Word-Level Grammar and Vocabulary

 

1.     Antonyms, synonyms, homonyms, homophones, and homographs

 

	Definition	Examples		Usage Tips
Synonyms	Words that have similar meanings.	Happy  - joyful, cheerful, delighted		Synonyms are helpful in avoiding repetition in writing and speaking.
		Fast - quick, rapid, speedy
		Smart - intelligent, clever, bright
Antonyms	Words that have opposite meanings.	Hot – Cold Big – Small Kind - Cruel		Antonyms help us to compare and express contrasts in speech and writing.
Homonyms	Words that are spelled and pronounced the same but have different meanings.	Bat -  (1) a flying mammal, (2) a piece of sports equipment
		Bark - (1) the sound a dog makes, (2) the outer layer of a tree
Homophones	Words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings.	Two/too/to Their/there Right/write
Homographs	Words that are spelled the same but may have different pronunciations and meanings.	Lead -  (1) to guide (verb), (2) a metal (noun)	The pronunciation often changes based on whether the word is used as a noun or verb.
		Tear -  (1) to rip (verb), (2) a drop from the eye (noun)

 

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Give TWO Synonyms and TWO Antonyms for each word below

i.        Beautiful

ii.      Brave

iii.    Easy

iv.    Loud

v.      Bright

Exercise 2: Fill in the blanks with the correct homophone:

i.        I want to ___ a story. (write/right)

ii.      She went ___ to get some water. (there/their/they’re)

iii.    Can you ___ the book on the table? (place/plaice)

iv.    I saw a ___ in the sky. (plain/plane)

Exercise 3: Use each of these words in two different sentences with different meanings:

i.        Lead

ii.      Tear

iii.    Bow

iv.    Row

v.      Object

 

2.     Word formation (prefixes, suffixes, compound words)

 

i.                    Prefixes: A prefix is a group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning.

Examples:

Prefix	Meaning	Example	New Meaning
Un-	Not	Unhappy	Not happy
Re-	Again	Redo	Do again
Pre-	Before	Preview	View before
Dis-	Opposite of	Disagree	Not agree
Mis-	Wrong	Misunderstand	Understand wrongly

Tip: Prefixes often turn words into their negative or opposite forms or indicate time/order.

ii.                  Suffixes: A suffix is a group of letters added to the end of a word to change its form or part of speech.

Examples:

Suffix	Changes to	Example	New Word
-ful	Adjective	Joy – joyful	Full of joy
-ness	Noun	Happy – happiness	State of being happy
-less	Adjective	Hope- hopeless	Without hope
-ment	Noun	Develop – development	Process or result
-ly	Adverb	Quick – quickly	How something is done

 

Tip: Suffixes can change a word’s tense, form, or part of speech (noun → adjective, verb → noun, etc.).

iii.                Compound Words: A compound word is made when two or more words are joined together to create a new word with a specific meaning.

Types:

1.1  Closed: Words joined without a space (e.g., toothpaste, notebook)

2.1  Hyphenated: Words joined with a hyphen (e.g., mother-in-law, part-time)

3.1  Open: Words written with a space but used together (e.g., high school, ice cream)

3.     Articles and determiners (a, an, the, some, any, few, many, etc.)

 

Determiners are words placed before nouns to show

i.        Which one?

ii.      How many?

iii.    Whose?

iv.    What type?

Types of Determiners

Type	Examples	Function
Articles	a, an, the	Specific or general reference
Quantifiers	Some, any, much, many. Few, little, a lot of	Show quantity or amount
Demonstrative	This, that. These, those	Point to something
Possessives	My, your, his, her, our, their	Show ownership
Numbers	One, two, three, etc	Show exact count

 

        i.            Articles (a, an, the)

a/an – indefinite Articles – use when referring to any one of something (not specific)

Ø  “a” – before consonant sounds

Example: a book, a pencil, a cat

Ø  “an” – before vowel sounds

Example: an apple, an hour, an orange

            The – Definite Article – used when referring to a specific person or thing

                        Example: The sun is bright today

                                          The saw the movie you recommended.

 

      ii.            Quantifiers (some, any, much, many, few, little, a lot of)

Word	Use	Example
Some	positive or polite request	I have some money. / Would you like some tea?
Any	negative or question	I don’t have any milk.
Much	uncountable nouns	We don’t have much time.
Many	countable nouns	There are many students in class.
Few	small number (countable)	Few people attended the meeting.
Little	small amount (uncountable)	There is little hope left.

 

    iii.            Demonstrative (this. That, these, those)

Word	Number	Distance	Example
This	Singular	Near	This chair is comfortable.
That	Singular	Far	That tree is tall.
These	Plural	Near	These apples are fresh.
Those	Plural	Far	Those stars are bright.

 

    iv.            Possessive Determiners

Word	Usage	Example
My	1st person singular	This is my pen.
Your	2nd person	Where is your bag?
His, her, Its	3rd person singular	That is her book.
Our, their	Plural	Our team won. / Their house is big.

 

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with a/an/the

i.        I saw ___ owl sitting on ___ tree.

ii.      She bought ___ umbrella and ___ orange.

iii.    Could you close ___ door, please?

iv.    They visited ___ Eiffel Tower last summer.

Exercise 2: Choose the Correct Determiner

i.        ___ water in the bottle is cold. (Much / The / An)

ii.      He has ___ friends in the city. (few / a few / little)

iii.    ___ dog barked all night. (That / These / My)

iv.    Is there ___ milk in the fridge? (some / any / a)

 

4.     Subjective, objective, and possessive pronouns

 

What is a Pronoun?

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence. Pronouns help avoid repetition and make sentences smoother.

Types of Personal Pronouns

Type	Function	Examples
Subjective Pronouns	Used as the subject of a sentence (the one doing the action)	I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Objective Pronouns	Used as the object of a verb or preposition (the one receiving the action)	me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive Pronouns	Show ownership or possession	my, your, his, her, its, our, their

 

        i.            Subjective Pronouns

                                i.            These pronouns act as the subject of a verb.

                              ii.            They tell who or what is doing the action in the sentence.

Examples:

Ø  I like apples

Ø  She is reading a book

 

      ii.            Objective Pronouns

                                i.            These pronouns are used as the object of a verb or a preposition.

                              ii.            They receive the action in the sentence.

Examples:

Ø  He helped me.

Ø  The teacher called him.

Ø  Can you pass the book to them?

 

    iii.            Possessive Pronouns

                                i.            These show ownership or possession.

                              ii.            They usually appear before a noun or stand alone to indicate who owns something.

Examples:

Ø  This is my book.

Ø  Is this your pen?

Ø  That house is theirs.

Note: "Its" (possessive) is different from "It's" (contraction of it is).             Possessive pronouns never take apostrophes.

 

Pronoun Reference Chart

Person	Subjective	Objective	Possessive (before noun)
1st Singular	I	me	my
2nd Singular	you	you	your
3rd Singular (male)	he	him	his
3rd Singular (female)	she	her	her
3rd Singular (neutral)	it	it	its
1st Plural	we	us	our
2nd Plural	you	you	your
3rd Plural	they	them	their

 

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the pronoun (subjective, objective, or possessive)

                    i.            This is ___ (I / me / my) favorite movie.

                  ii.            Could you help ___ (I / me / my) with this homework?

                iii.             ___ (He / Him / His) always comes to school early.

                iv.            That bag belongs to Sarah. It is ___ (her / hers / she).

                  v.            We played against Sonam and Pema. We lost to ___ (they / them / their).

                vi.            This is ___ (our / ours / we) classroom.

              vii.            ___ (They / Them / Their) have just returned from a field trip.

            viii.            I found this pencil. Is it ___ (your / yours / you)?

5.     Indefinite pronouns

Definition: Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, or things in a general or non-specific way. They do not refer to any particular person or thing.

Common Indefinite Pronouns

People	Things	Amounts / Others
someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody	something, anything, everything, nothing	each, all, most, many, few, several, some, none, one, both, either, neither

Examples

Ø  Someone is knocking at the door.

Ø  Is there anything I can help you with?

Ø  Everyone enjoyed the picnic.

Ø  Nothing is impossible if you try.

Ø  Each of the students has a task.

Ø  Few remembered to bring their homework.

Points to Remember

1. Singular vs. Plural:

a)       Some indefinite pronouns are always singular:

i.         anyone, everybody, someone, nobody, each, either, neither

ii.       Everyone is happy.

b)       Some are always plural:

i.         both, few, many, several

ii.        Many are interested in science.

c)       Some can be singular or plural, depending on the context:

i.         all, some, most, none

ii.       Some of the water is gone.

iii.     Some of the books are missing.

2. Agreement with verbs:

a)       Make sure the verb agrees with the pronoun in number.

i.         Each student is present.

ii.       Few have completed the task.

3. Gender-neutral and polite:

a)       Indefinite pronouns are useful when the gender of a person is unknown.

i.         Someone left their phone. (Gender-neutral)

 

 

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with a suitable indefinite pronoun.

i.        __________ left the classroom door open.

ii.      There isn’t __________ in the fridge.

iii.    I hope __________ will help me with the project.

iv.    __________ of the answers is correct.

v.      __________ has taken my pen. I cannot find it!

vi.    __________ knows the trouble I have seen.

vii.  There is __________ in my shoe. I think it’s a stone.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct verb (is/are) to agree with the indefinite pronoun.

1. Everyone ___ (is / are) ready for the trip.
2. Many ___ (has / have) applied for the job.
3. Each of the players ___ (was / were) given a medal.
4. All of the water ___ (is / are) gone.
5. None of the children ___ (was / were) late.
6. Somebody ___ (is / are) calling you.
7. Few ___ (knows / know) the truth.

6.     Modal auxiliaries

 

Modal auxiliaries are helping verbs that express ability, possibility, permission, necessity, or obligation. They are always used with a main verb (base form) and help modify its meaning.

Common Modal Verbs

Modal	Use	Example
Can	Ability / Permission	She can swim very well. Can I use your phone?
Could	Past ability / Polite request / Possibility	I could run faster when I was younger. Could you help me?
May	Permission / Possibility	May I leave early today? It may rain soon.
Might	Weak possibility	He might be late for class.
Shall	Suggestions / Future (formal)	Shall we go for a walk?
Should	Advice / Expectation	You should drink more water.
Will	Future / Willingness	I will call you later.
Would	Polite request / Hypothetical	Would you like some tea?
Must	Strong obligation / Deduction	You must wear a seatbelt. He must be tired.
Ought to	Moral duty / Advice	You ought to help your friends.

 

Rules Always followed by base verb: Example: She can speak French. Do not take -s in the third person singular: Example: He might come.

 

Practice Exercises

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct modal: can, may, must, should, will, would

1. You ___ finish this project by Monday. (necessity)
2. I ___ help you carry those books. (willingness)
3. ___ I borrow your pen? (permission)
4. He ___ play the violin when he was six. (past ability)
5. You ___ see a doctor. (advice)

Exercise 2: Choose the best modal to complete the sentence:

1. You (can / should / may) wear a jacket. It’s cold outside.
2. I (will / might / must) visit my grandma this weekend.
3. She (can / must / would) be the new teacher. She looks familiar.

 

7.     Auxiliaries

 

What are Auxiliaries?

Auxiliary verbs, also called helping verbs, are used together with a main verb to express tense, voice, mood, or aspect.

 

Types of Auxiliaries:

1. Primary Auxiliaries:

Ø  Be (is, am, are, was, were, been, being)

Ø  Have (have, has, had)

Ø  Do (do, does, did)

2. Modal Auxiliaries:

Ø  Can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to
(Already covered in Topic 6)

Examples:

Ø  She is writing a story. (Be – present continuous tense)

Ø  They have finished their work. (Have – present perfect tense)

Ø  He did not agree with the plan. (Do – negative form)

 

8.     Verb phrases, noun phrases, and prepositional phrases

 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is a group of words that acts like a noun in a sentence. It has a noun (or pronoun) as its head word and may include modifiers (articles, adjectives, determiners).

 

Structure: [Determiner + Adjective(s) + Noun]

 

Examples:

Ø  The little boy ran fast.

Ø  I saw a group of tourists.

Ø  My best friend lives in Thimphu.

 

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase consists of the main verb along with one or more auxiliary (helping) verbs. It shows tense, mood, voice, or aspect.

 

Structure: [Auxiliary Verb(s) + Main Verb]

 

Examples:

Ø  She is reading a book.

Ø  They have been playing since morning.

Ø  I will be going home soon.

 

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun (called the object of the preposition). It can function as an adjective (describing a noun) or adverb (describing a verb).

 

Structure: [Preposition + Object (Noun/Pronoun)]

 

Examples:

Ø  The book is on the table. (Where?)

Ø  She arrived after the meeting. (When?)

Ø  The man with the red hat is my uncle. (Which man?)

 

Comparison

Phrase Type	Head Word	Function	Example
Noun Phrase	Noun	Subject/Object	The tall girl won the race.
Verb Phrase	Verb	Predicate	He has been working hard.
Prepositional Phrase	Preposition	Modifier (Adj/Adv)	The cat slept under the table.